April 2003

Japanese 日本語　

This Article is the translation of a Japanese paper entitled 'Jizoku Kanona Kaihatsu no tameno Kyoiku towa Nanika? : Yobiteki Kosatsu' in Jizoku Kanona Kaihatsu no tameno Manabi, DEAR, April 2003, pp12-21. All rights reserved.

The importance of education for sustainable development (ESD) was confirmed in the Plan of Implementation for the September 2002 Johannesburg Summit; and in December of the same year, the 57th session of the UN General Assembly declared that the United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development would start in 2005. 1) The defining points of this education and the details of the Decade of Education for Sustainable Development were debated and adopted by the General Assembly in the autumn of 2003.

This article will attempt to explain the curriculum and methodological principles of ESD as derived from the meaning of the concept of sustainable development, as it has been debated up to this point, and the past accomplishments of development and environmental education. In the first section, I would like to include past debate while initially returning to the concept of sustainable development. In the second section I would like to examine the correlating factors between world poverty/overpopulation and environmental issues, all of which serve as the backdrop to the sustainable development concept. In the third and forth sections, I will explore the relationship between ESD and traditional environmental and development education. Specifically, I will consider whether the evolution and progression of environmental and development education is linked to ESD. In the conclusion, I shall propose one approach to take in implementing ESD and the curricula and methodology.

The concept of sustainable development was first referred to in the 1987 report, Our Common Future, from the Brundtland Commission. 2) In the report, sustainable development was defined as, "[meeting] the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs." This should not be interpreted as conflicting with the conventional concepts of development and environment; this idea promotes economic development that sustains the earth's ecosystem. Sustainable development means that this generation will not exhaust the earth's resources for the sake of future generations (intergenerational justice); sustainable development also aims to eliminate the differences in resource use between the North and the South, which, is to say, the gap between the rich and the poor (intragenerational justice).

Subsequently, in the 1992 United Nations Conference on the Environment and Development (the Earth Summit), there was official agreement on the principle of sustainable development and Agenda 21, the Conference action plan, was adopted. The concept of sustainable development became the theme of UN-sponsored and other international conferences held in the 1990s, and the interconnectedness of this issue with other issues faced by the world community gradually came to light. Those conferences were the World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna, the International Conference on Population and Development in Cairo, the World Summit for Social Development in Copenhagen, the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing, and the United Nations Conference on Human Settlements in Istanbul. Through these conferences, it became clear that not only are the issues of population, poverty, the environment, gender, housing and human rights all trans-border issues of a global scale, but that they are all mutually and deeply linked, and that solutions for these issues will only come with international cooperation and citizenry participation.

The United Nations Conference on the Environment and Development (the Earth Summit, as it was known), held in Rio de Janeiro Brazil in 1992, was a significant conference for environmental conservation. The keyword for the summit was 'sustainable development,' and debates occurred on intergenerational and intragenerational justice. Intergenerational justice implies justice between generations: this generation should not completely deplete the earth's energy and resources so future generations are not left with a barren world filled with garbage.

Making sustainable development into a reality not only demands intergenerational justice, but also justice between the North and the South (intragenerational justice). For example, there are great differences between the expenditure amounts of energy and resources among countries with differing rates of industrialization. As demonstrated in illustration 1, the amount of energy consumed by an individual in India is set to a value of 1 for comparative purposes; an individual in Japan and the advanced industrial countries of Europe uses between 12 to 13 times more energy, while, in the United States and Canada an individual uses as much as 25 times more energy.

It was agreed upon at the Earth Summit that limitations would be put upon the use of energy and resources in order to protect the earth's environment. However, at the numerous conferences to prevent global warming (COP3 Kyoto Conference, COP4 Buenos Aires Conference) a serious fissure developed between those that thought the high-energy consuming advanced countries should implement the restrictions, and those that thought that the developing countries should implement the restrictions at the same time. This rift was carried over to the Johannesburg Summit, and continues to be the greatest point of conflict in solving environmental problems.

The two major factors that are destroying the environment are the over-consumption of energy and resources by the industrially-advanced countries, and the dramatic increase in population and the existence of poverty in developing countries. Increased population encroaches on the natural habitat of animals, and poverty is linked to environmental destruction such as deforestation to secure fuel and food. In contrast to the over-development of advanced countries, developing countries face 'under-development,' or more familiarly, poverty; therefore, there must be a fixed level of development to sustain everyone's lifestyle. I shall now turn to the current situation with poverty and overpopulation and their link to environmental issues.

Among the problems that the world currently faces is the issue of population; in 1999 the population of the world reached six billion, and in 2003 that increased further to 6.3 billion. In 1960, the population was half what it was today, at three billion; therefore, we have seen the entire population of the earth double in a mere 40 years. However, over one-fifth of that six billion, over one billion people, suffer day to day in the throes of poverty. As the saying goes, 'Rich men feed, and poor men breed,' even in mainstream culture it is well known that poverty and overpopulation are intimately linked.

In addition to this, whether the population of the earth will stop at eight billion in the middle of the 21st century or continue on to 100 billion is a problem of great significance to the earth's environment. Solving the problems of poverty and overpopulation is critical in protecting the earth's environment. But to solve poverty and overpopulation a fixed level of development, the betterment of the lives of the poor, is essential.

The 1994 International Conference on Population and Development in Cairo focused on the issue of overpopulation. The preamble of the Programme of Action from the conference states:

Significant progress in many fields important for human welfare has been made through national and international efforts. However, the developing countries are still facing serious economic difficulties and an unfavourable international economic environment, and people living in absolute poverty have increased in many countries. Around the world many of the basic resources on which future generations will depend for their survival and well- being are being depleted and environmental degradation is intensifying, driven by unsustainable patterns of production and consumption, unprecedented growth in population, widespread and persistent poverty, and social and economic inequality. Ecological problems, such as global climate change, largely driven by unsustainable patterns of production and consumption, are adding to the threats to the well-being of future generations. 3)

Generally, during industrial development, population shifts as shown in illustration 2: Phase 1 displays a high birth and mortality rate, which then shifts to a high birth rate and a low mortality rate in Phase 2, and, finally, accompanying higher standards of living, Phase 3 displays both low birth and mortality rates. In both Phase 1 and Phase 3 the population number either stagnates or increases slightly. It is in Phase 2, where the number of children born outstretches the number of people dying, that a significant increase in population occurs. Japan reached Phase 3 in a mere 100 years. Japan saw Phase 1 in the Edo period (1603-1867) when the population stagnated at roughly 30 million, but in the modernization during and beyond the Meiji period (1868-1912) the mortality rate dropped dramatically and the population began to expand because of improved food production, higher standards of living through industrialization, and the implementation of universal education. This expansion continued through to the high-growth period of the 1960s when Japan's population surpassed 100 million. The population expansion slowed down after that as the birth rate decreased due to surges in household expenditures on children and women increasingly seeking their own careers. The declining birth rate and the ageing population trends are well-known grave issues facing Japanese society today.

Currently, almost all of the 80 million people added to the world population each year are those born in developing regions. Therefore, it is an urgent priority to improve lifestyles and the level of education in these regions while spreading the concept of family planning to stop further population increase in the future. To that end, poverty must be eliminated in developing regions.

The 1995 World Summit for Social Development held in Copenhagen, Denmark, faced the issue of poverty head on. In the 16 points of the Copenhagen Declaration, the problems facing the world were indicated as follows: 4)

- the widening gap between the rich and poor within each country, the widening gap between the industrially advanced countries and developing countries;

- the over one billion people of the world that live in poverty;

- the worsening poverty and inequality are due to environmental degradation;

- the deterioration of social institutions and the environment due to overpopulation;

- the 125 million unemployed people in the world;

- the poverty among and disproportionate share of problems placed upon women;

- one of every 10 persons with a disability suffers from poverty, unemployment or social isolation. Older persons are in a similar situation;

- and, the tens of millions of refugees and displaced persons.

Upon confirming the above points the following three themes were made central to the World Summit for Social Development: 1) the elimination of poverty, 2) the expansion of employment, and 3) the avoidance of social ruptures (the promotion of social integration). After consideration was paid to the fact that the conventional economics-driven model of development did not always eliminate poverty and sometimes proved to oppress the weak, importance was given at the Summit to the concepts of human development and social development as the title suggests. Social development involves implementing development in areas that give precedence to human development; education, nutrition, healthcare, employment and environmental conservation. It is the concept that, since the local populace are the true stakeholders of development, they should be involved in all processes, from development planning to implementation.

In order to promote human-centered social development and social justice, the 10-year period starting in 1996 was set as the 'Decade for the Eradication of Poverty' and it was declared at the World Summit for Social Development that global efforts would be undertaken to eliminate poverty and unemployment, and to avoid social ruptures. To reach these goals, the '20:20 Accord' was advocated, which allocated 20% of the public expenditures of every government to social development, and 20% of official development assistance (ODA) would be allocated to the social sector.

As we have seen above, the three problems of poverty, overpopulation and environmental degradation are causes that are mutually linked to a common end result. The necessity of finding a solution to this trilemma is a pressing issue for all of humanity. Therefore, to raise awareness towards these problems there is a need to integrate the curricula of development education, which deals with the problems of overpopulation and poverty and environmental education, which deals with the problem of environmental degradation.

The curricula of education for sustainable development were clarified in a 2003 UN General Assembly resolution. I would like to outline discussion up to this point related to ESD in an attempt to further that discussion, and I would like to consider the curricula and methodology for ESD.

The basis for ESD can be found in the 1992 Earth Summit, which held sustainable development as the core concept. The Summit's action plan, Agenda 21, details 'Promoting Education, Public Awareness and Training' in Chapter 36. 5) Section 3 states, "Education is critical for promoting sustainable development and improving the capacity of the people to address environment and development issues." The succeeding paragraph continues, "It is also critical for achieving environmental and ethical awareness, values and attitudes, skills and behaviour consistent with sustainable development and for effective public participation in decision-making." 'Environmental and Developmental Education' are terms also used in Agenda 21, and we can see that at that point the content of ESD was already assumed to be environmental and developmental education.

Influenced by Agenda 21, UNESCO held the International Conference on Environment and Society: Education and Public Awareness for Sustainability in Thessaloniki, Greece during December of 1997. In the final document produced at the conference, the Thessaloniki Declaration, it is expressed that, "Environmental education…has also been dealt with as education for environment and sustainability." (Paragraph 11) 6) It is further explained that:

The concept of sustainability encompasses not only environment but also poverty, population, health, food security, democracy, human rights and peace. Sustainability is, in the Final analysis, a moral and ethical imperative in which cultural diversity and traditional knowledge need to be respected. (paragraph 10)

Characteristics of the Thessaloniki Declaration include its confirmation that environmental education is to be developed into education for sustainability and the environment, and the true form of sustainability is not just limited to environmental and developmental issues, but also encompasses such broad concepts as democracy, human rights, peace and cultural diversity. The background to this, as I have stated previously, was in the series of UN and international conferences held in the 1990s that recognized the relationships among global issues.

In the same year, UNESCO hosted the Fifth International Conference on Adult Learning in Hamburg, Germany. The declaration adopted at this conference became known as the 'Hamburg Declaration on Adult Learning', and made known the role of adult education and global issues facing humanity in the following: 7)

We…reaffirm that only human-centred development and a participatory society based on the full respect of human rights will lead to sustainable and equitable development. The informed and effective participation of men and women in every sphere of life is needed if humanity is to survive and to meet the challenges of the future. (Paragraph 1)

The Hamburg Declaration included global issues such as poverty and eliminating the gap between the North and the South, the resolution of environmental problems, the achievement of a peaceful democratic world, and guaranteeing the right of education for those that face discrimination and the underprivileged (women, people with disabilities, native peoples, older persons etc.). To solve these issues fundamental recognition was established that, as it was stated in the beginning, human-centred development and a participatory society are required, and adult education, itself, is absolutely essential. The Hamburg Declaration continues:

Adult education thus becomes more than a right; it is a key to the twenty-first century. It is both a consequence of active citizenship and a condition for full participation in society. It is a powerful concept for fostering ecologically sustainable development, for promoting democracy, justice, gender equity, and scientific, social and economic development, and for building a world in which violent conflict is replaced by dialogue and a culture of peace based on justice. Adult learning can shape identity and give meaning to life. Learning throughout life implies a rethinking of content to reflect such factors as age, gender equality, disability, language, culture and economic disparities. (Paragraph 2)

As the reader can observe in the above, all forms of ESD are not only limited to adult education but also include youth education. In short, ESD is composed of three mainstays; 1) conventional environmental education centered on the ecosystem and environmental conservation, 2) development education approaching development issues such as overpopulation, poverty and health, and 3) peace and human rights education focused on peace, human rights, democracy and coexistence.

What common points and what differences do education for sustainable development have with traditional environmental education? And, what is required to make the transition from the traditional environmental education to ESD? In the below I will attempt to answers these questions while considering the arguments of Kazuhiro Nitta, John Fien, Satoko Ishikawa, and Osamu Abe.

Kazuhiro Nitta, of the Centre for Educating Global Citizens, identifies curricula and methodology for ESD while clarifying the evolution of conventional environmental education and its characteristics. 8) According to Nitta, environmental education in Japan broadly evolved through four stages: pollution education, education for environmental conservation, firsthand learning about nature, and education for sustainable development. Pollution education, one of the origins of Japanese environmental education, confronted the devastating industrial pollution of the 1960s and was taught by comprehensively imbuing students with knowledge on the pollution issues and their solutions (problem-presenting/instructional approach). Pollution education was ad hoc education to counter the problem of pollution, and when devastating industrial pollution was eliminated, this approach fell into decline. Another origin of environmental education, education for environmental conservation, is a logical way of learning that teaches respect for nature and a conservation mindset based on natural observation from an ecological standpoint. This could be referred to as an observational/moral lesson approach, but as Nitta points out, there is a significant leap between observation and moral lessons and it is not reasonable to expect every person to incorporate the teachings into their daily life.

In the latter half of the 1980s firsthand learning about nature arrived on the scene and is currently still part of the mainstream; this method relies on diverse sensibilities to the environment and the solidarity among the students to solve the various issues and can be considered a sensibility/community approach to learning. However, when firsthand learning about nature curricula was institutionalized in schools, there was a tendency for those programmes to converge with nature friendship programmes. The curriculum of firsthand learning about nature has become both the means and the end itself, and, resultantly, the educational content has a tendency to shift away from confronting environmental issues.

Upon outlining the characteristics and limitations of conventional environmental education, Nitta asserts;

Education for sustainability, general learning for the environment or general learning for sustainability are not educational systems that seek to instill knowledge on the environment in students, but, instead, aim to position the Environment and other related topics as key themes while prompting public awareness in and fostering a sense of partnership among students. These systems nurture the potential within students to collaborate with each other to resolve issues.

He continues, "Environmental education for the purpose of creating a sustainable society is charged with the mission of educating citizens who have the ability to affect policy to make that sustainable society into a reality." Nitta stresses the spread and promotion of educational training to empower students and citizens to affect policy, and further presents specific curricula for that end.

John Fien, an environmental education expert from Australia, in his work, Education for the Environment: Critical Curriculum Theorising and Environmental Education, classifies environmental education into five categories based on the differences among the ideas and philosophy of environment and education. 9) It is in this 'critical education for the Environment' that the philosophy and methodology that are linked to contemporary ESD exist. Upon outlining traditional critical education for the Environment, Fien explains that it possesses the following five traits: 10)

1. Based on the following points, critical education for the Environment stresses the improvement of critical consciousness towards the environment.

a) Holistically examining the environment as the sum total of the interdependent relationships between natural systems and social systems.

b) Interpreting current and future environmental issues from an historical standpoint.

c) Examining the following points, and assessing the causes and effects of environmental issues as well as alternative solutions.

i) Relationships of ideology, economy, and science and technology

ii) Economic links on a local, regional, national and global scale

2. The focus of critical education for the Environment is placed on current societal problems, and after diverse practical and academic learning, critical thinking and problem solving skills are improved while broadly researching information types.

3. Critical education for the Environment improves upon environmental theory based on sensitivity and interest towards environment quality.

4. Critical education for the Environment improves understanding, attitudes and skills for political literacy to prompt various social behaviours to improve and maintain the quality of the Environment.

5. Critical education for the Environment requires an instructional approach that meets objectives. This is called 'critical practicality.'

Satoko Ishikawa, who wrote the explanatory monograph included in the book, The Future of Environmental Education: Towards Sustainability in the Human Environment, lays out the following three fundamental principles for education for sustainability; 1) philosophy/basic values (fairness/justice), 2) procedures/processes (participatory agreement/democratic decision-making), 3) supporters/subjects (citizens/independent entities). 11) She continues;

Briefly, to make fairness a reality within human society, every member of society can actively involve themselves in the procedures of democratic decision making and further enrich their lives through links with others. I believe that the role of education for the creation of sustainable societies composed of these types of citizens should fall on education for sustainability.

Ishikawa and Nitta share the common point in their assertions that ESD is about cultivating citizens that involve themselves in shared problems and can participate in the processes that resolve those problems.

Osamu Abe, who has long held positions of leadership in the Japanese Society of Environmental Education and the Japan Environmental Education Forum examines ESD from a different angle. Abe classifies environment education into three types for practical application: the Natural Scope, the Lifestyle Scope (the Social Scope), and the Global Scope (see illustration 3). 12) The Natural Scope is ecology which situates nature conservation and firsthand learning about nature at the core; the Lifestyle Scope (the Social Scope) involves garbage disposal, recycling, consumer education, community building etc. The Global Scope begins with global environmental issues and involves other global issues such as development, peace and population.

Abe asserts that the General Scope in his chart is important for the progression of these environmental education disciplines into ESD. Environmental municipalities and eco-museums are given as examples in the General Scope category, however, Abe position the idea of 'linking' as the keyword in this process. Abe continues, "There are various merits in linking administrative policy, linking people, and linking regions…anything can serve as the conduits for those links; environment, welfare, education, international relations." Abe asserts that the general learning curriculum in schools is, in terms of this 'linking', environmental education in an important and broad sense. Abe places importance on the active participation of children towards creating a sustainable society and also on the process of discoveries made by the children of the links between themselves and adults, their local regions and the world, and time and space from environmental and public welfare perspectives. The focus of the arguments of Nitta and Ishikawa is participation in the community; however, it is apparent that Abe, using the word 'linking,' establishes the key themes of involvement and partnerships in ESD.

Development education first emerge at the behest of European and American international NGOs in the 1960s, and the concept was galvanized as proper education through the various conferences of UNICEF and other United Nations organs in the 1970s. In Japan, the United Nations University and the United Nations Information Centre hosted the Development Education Symposium in 1979, and in 1982 the Development Education Council of Japan was created (currently known as Development Education Association and Resource Center [DEAR]). 13)

Development education of that era considered poverty and hunger, underdevelopment and deficiencies of the developing world, and how citizens of the advanced industrial countries could resolve those problems. Therefore, supporters of this movement included youth organizations with international ties such as the alumni from the Japan International Cooperation Agency, individuals with links to NGOs for international cooperation, the YMCA etc. It was also simultaneously acknowledged that the cause of the poverty of developing countries originated in the North, and that this concept was much wider than simply learning about the South. In addition to this, the 'internal internalization' of multicultural coexistence became an issue during the massive influx of foreign labourers starting in the late 1980s.

Development education would greatly change in the 1990s. The international conferences, mentioned previously, tackling issues such as environment, overpopulation, human rights, and gender served as the backdrop to recognizing that those global issues are intimately linked to the way global social development should be, and this lead to the exploration of not only conjoining fields but a wider range of fields.

DEAR explains its role in development education; "We seek to understand the various problems surrounding development, consider desirable forms of development, and participate in the creation of a just global society that allows for peaceful coexistence." Built upon this statement, DEAR offers the following five specific educational goals: 14)

1) When considering development, the diversity of world culture is to be understood predicated on human dignity and respect;

2) The current situation of poverty seen in all parts of the world, and the disparity between the North and the South as well as the causes for such are to be understood;

3) The intimate connections among global issues such as problems surrounding development and environmental destruction are to be understood;

4) The composition of the links in the world is to be understood, and we are to recognize our deep connections with problems surrounding development;

5) The efforts and trials required to overcome problems surrounding development are to be appreciated, and capabilities and attitudes enabling participation are to be fostered.

As I have explained previously, ESD covers diverse yet intimately linked global issues such as overpopulation, development, the Environment, human dwellings, human rights and peace, however, starting in the middle of the 1990s the education goals for development education were positioned, as can be seen in the above 2, 3, and 4, to reflect these fields and the interconnectedness among them. Further still, "the creation of a just global society that allows for peaceful coexistence," which development education aspires to, is deeply linked to, "the creation of a sustainable global society," to which ESD aspires. In that sense, we can say that development education of 1997 definition is ESD. A lucid representation of the content of ESD can be achieved by describing it's ultimate goal as "the creation of a sustainable global society based on peaceful coexistence and fairness."

However, from a practical viewpoint, there are several problems with the progression of current development education to ESD; the largest problem being that of the viewpoint from one's own 'locality.' In brief, the themes that development education has covered up to now have been of the broadest nature around the world, and this can be very daunting for an average high school or junior high school, it may even disinterest them. If the issues raised cannot be related to their own lives, the results of the education will come to nothing. Development education has formerly taken issue with the problems of far away Southern countries, and has focused on technique rather than content. Various educational materials and curricula linking the world and the learners' locality through participatory learning have been developed in the late 1990s, and, even now, are still being improved upon and conceived. 15) Yet, just as Nitta has criticized firsthand learning about nature, the development education materials and workshops have, themselves, become both the means and the end; and, there still remains the danger that the learning experience will not result in changes to everyday life and attitudes.

Yuji Yamanishi's article in this booklet, Progression of the 'Locality' in Development Education: Conceptualizing the Meaning of 'Locality', provides one proposal to overcome this point. 16) Yamanishi positions the 'locality' in the following four terms:

1) Life: An individual's locality represents a place that guarantees their life.

2) Participation: An individual's locality represents a place that allows for the participation in partnerships.

3) Creation: An individual's locality represents a place that is a base for the creation and selection of culture.

4) Resistance: An individual's locality represents a place that is the axis for resistance against globalization.

To aid the reader's conception of this idea Yamanishi summarizes, "The future progression of the 'locality' may be, in its essence, not the surreal, but the real, and will operate not just from the brain, but from the body and soul; and, education may be required where, in response to this, culture and society will first be slow and gentle, and then will move with more force." The progression of the 'locality,' as Yamanishi states, is an important suggestion for the qualitative transformation of development education into ESD.

As explained previously, education for sustainable development is composed of the three mainstays of environmental education, development education, and peace and human rights education. However, this has done nothing more than simply list the broadness of the fields that education for sustainable development deals with. To practically implement ESD in schools and at the local level, an educational approach is required. When assigning environment, development, human rights and peace to the horizontal axis of ESD, what would the principles and methodology for practical implementation be on the vertical axis?

Section two of this article argued the links of ESD to environmental education and development education. Let's use some of the key concepts in that section: participation, affecting policy, decision making, empowerment, locality, partnerships, collaboration, links and involvement. I shall presume that the learning approach is the vertical axis of ESD, and that education on everything from participation to community-building is the logical approach. Roger Hart's Children's Participation will serve as reference to this point. Hart sought case studies where the participation of children in environmental problems was effectively made possible; he then organized the principles and methodology of those case studies and produced this work as a joint project with UNICEF. It is entitled Children's Participation: The Theory and Practice of Involving Young Citizens in Community Development and Environmental Care, and since being published in 1997 has gained attention all over the world. 17)

There are three facets to Hart's argument. The first is that the level of the participation of children can be organized into eight levels as a 'ladder of participation.' This model presents the desired participation levels of children in a clear form, and is often quoted by other academics. The second facet is that the participation of children and environmental education/community building are linked. Sometimes differing by the level of development, a child's daily life is usually performed within a perimeter with a one-kilometer radius centred on home and school, and searching for problems in that living space and pursuing solutions is, itself, environmental education, which leads to community building. Hart expects that children, who make the locality the centre of their lives, and not adults, will become the backbone towards resolving global environmental problems. The third facet is the concrete learning methodology of 'action research' which he proposes. This methodology involves children traveling around their locality and identifying specific problems, exploring those problems, establishing plans to resolve those problems and acting upon them (For more information on action research see Propelling Action Research: From Local Learning to the World). 18) By resolving specific local problems, children can form a system of trust with adults, they can overcome their feelings of helplessness, and they can develop to be the primary force in solving social problems. In the same way, the learning route from the participation of children to community building is also found in this methodology.

We must refrain from placing great expectations on children to become the primary force to solve environmental problems; it is also almost impossible to expect a technique such as action research, which has just begun in general learning, to immediately expand in the Japanese classroom. However, even should it take time, in order to promote ESD the perspective of participation and community building are absolutely essential for children and adults alike. 19) Community building, from the perspective of environmental education, aims to create a sustainable community that is gentle for both the environment and the inhabitants, and from the perspective of development education, demands the creation of a society where people can peacefully coexist regardless of nationality/ethnicity, gender, age and disabilities. Moreover, in order not to threaten the lifestyles of those that live in the South, local lifestyles require powers of imagination and consideration. The participation of children, people with disabilities, women, older persons and people that are more disadvantaged is indispensable to this type of community building, and opportunities for empowerment must be offered to achieve their participation in policy formation. Allow me to outline and illustrate the fields and approaches of ESD in the below.

I have covered the concept of sustainable development and reviewed the changes in thought on ESD since the Earth Summit in this article; while also attempting to clarify the curricula of ESD as it relates to conventional environmental education and development education. There are numerous points about the reality of ESD which should be explained, however, I would like to sum up the contents of this article in the following three points:

1) Education for sustainable development is composed of the three mainstays of environmental education, development education, and human rights and peace education.

2) Education for sustainable development is education that aims to 'create a sustainable society based on peaceful coexistence and fairness'.

3) The goal of education for sustainable development is nurturing capabilities and mindsets that allow for participation in community building which realizes fairness, coexistence and sustainability.

I have explained ESD in this article from the perspective of environmental education and development education, however, I have not delved into the relationship of schools of thought that place humans at the center of their philosophy, such as human rights and peace studies, gender equalities studies and even more pertinent, human development and human security. 20) Further explaining the interconnectedness of these fields would not only enrich the principles of ESD, but also promote further networking among individuals involved in human rights, peace, gender and other such disciplines.

In addition to this, I have presented the route of participation to community building as a learning approach for ESD, yet, there are a multitude of other learning approaches for ESD. For example, the learning method of immediately transcending localities and borders to become involved in global issues such as helping refugees or the eradication of poverty is an obvious possible technique to be applied in ESD; the global to local approach is also another possibility. Indeed, arranging these diverse learning approaches based on practical accumulation is a topic for future debate.

(See illustration 4)

2) World Commission on Environment and Development, Our Common Future, Oxford University Press, 1987.

3) Programme of Action, Intergovernmental Conference on Population and Development, Cairo, 5-13, September 1994.

4) Copenhagen Declaration on Social Development, World Summit for Social Development, Copenhagen, 6-12, March 1995.

5) Agenda 21, Chapter 36 Promoting Education, Public Awareness and Training, United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Rio de Janeiro, 3-14 June 1992.

6) Final Report, International Conference on Environment and Society: Education and Public Awareness for Sustainability, Thessaloniki, Greece, 8-12 December 1997.

7) The Hamburg Declaration on Adult Learning, UNESCO Fifth International Conference on Adult Education, Hamburg, 14-18 July 1997.

8) Nitta, Kazuhiro. Jizoku kanou na shakai wo tsukuru kankyou kyouiku - jizoku kanou na shakai no tame no sougou gakushuu (Using environmental education to create a sustainable society: General education for a sustainable society), Centre for Educating Global Citizens, 2002. Nitta, Kazuhiro. Kankyou kyouiku ga chokumen suru saidai no kadai - guroobarizeeshon to jizoku fukanou na shakai (The greatest problems facing environmental education: Globalization and unsustainable societies), The Japanese Society of Environmental Education, Kankyou Kyouiku (Environmental Education) #22, 2002, p. 15-25.

9) Fien, John. Education for the Environment: Critical Curriculum Theorising and Environmental Education, Deakin University, 1993.

10) Ibid. p. 29

11) Ishikawa, Satoko. Korekara no kenkyou kyouiku- ningenn kannkyou no jizoku kanousei wo mezasu (The Future of Environmental Education: Towards Sustainability in the Human Environment), Ibid. p. 200.

12) Abe, Osamu. Jizoku kanou na mirai wo hirakou (Establishing a Sustainable Future), Kikan Erukore-da-, #12, October, 2002, p. 1-4.

13) For information on the progression of development education in Japan see: Tanaka, Haruhiko. Kaihatsu kyouiku- koremade no 20 nen to korekara no kadai (The Past 20 Years of Development Education and Topics for the Future), Kaihatsu Kyouiku, #47, February, 2003, p. 3-7.

14) Tanaka, Haruhiko. Kaihatsu (rekishi/teigi) (Development [History/Definition]), Kaihatsu Kyouiku Kiiwaado 51 (51 Keywords of Development Education), DEAR, 2002, p. 68-69.

15) For example DEAR has produced; Wakuwaku kaihatsu kyouiku-sankagata gakushuu e no hinto (Exciting Trends in Development Education: Hints for Participatory Learning), 1999. Ikiiki kaihatsu kyouiku- sougou gakushuu ni muketa karikyuramu to kyouzai (Fresh Methods for Development Education: Curriculum and Teaching Materials for General Learning), 2000. Tsunagare kaihatsu kyouiku- gakkou to chiiki no paatonaashippu jireishuu (Links in Development Education: Examples of Partnerships Between Schools and Local Populations), 2001. Talk for Peace! Motto hanasou- heiwa wo kizuku tameni watashitachi ga dekiru koto (Talk for Peace! Let's Talk About Things We Can Do for to Create Peace), 2001.

16) Yamanishi, Yuuji. Kaihatsu kyouiku no chiiki tenkai ni mukete- chiiki no motsu imi o kangaeru (Progression of the 'Locality' in Development Education: Conceptualizing the Meaning of 'Locality'), first printing in Kaihatsu Kyouiku, #47, February, 2003, p. 32-39.

17) Hart, Roger A. Children's Participation: The Theory and Practice of Involving Young Citizens in Community Development and Environmental Care, UNICEF, New York, 1997.

18) Tanaka, Haruhiko. Akushon risaachi no susume- chiiki gakushu kara sekai e (Propelling Action Research: From Local Learning to the World), first printing in Kaihatsu Kyouiku, #46, August, 2002, p. 31-34.

19) Though not originally edited for ESD, the book closest to practical application of ESD right now was produced by The Information Center for Children's Participation: Kodomo/wakamono no sankaku- R haato no mondai teiki ni kotaete (Participation of Children/Youth: Answering the Problems Posed by Hart), Hobunsha, 2002.

20) The global issues raised at the international conferences in the 1990s have been organized in the following monograph and the keywords of Gender, Empowerment, NGO/NPO have been used to explain those issues. This monograph also served as the base for this article. Tanaka, Osamu. Chikyuuteki kadai to shougai gakushuu- 1990 nendai no kokusai kaigi no koudou keikaku ni miru (Global Issues and Life Learning: Examining the Action Plans of the International Conferences of the 1990s), Rikkyou Daigaku Kyouiku Gakka Kenkyuu Nenpou, #42, 1999, p. 147-156. Reproduced in Kaihatsu Kyouiku, #40, August, 1999. Full text listed on the Tanaka's homepage: http://www.rikkyo.ne.jp/~htanaka/index.html

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